Rare earths – the 15 lanthanides plus yttrium and scandium – are critical ingredients in EV motors, wind turbines, semiconductors and lasers. This page introduces the most in‑demand elements, explains their geological origins and economics, and outlines how Geotechnic Solutions can help you evaluate REE opportunities.
Rare earth elements (REEs) consist of fifteen lanthanides plus yttrium and scandium. Despite the name they are relatively abundant in Earth’s crust; however, economic concentrations are scarce and unevenly distributed. REEs underpin modern clean technologies because of their unique magnetic, optical and catalytic properties. In electric vehicles and wind turbines, NdFeB magnets containing neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium and terbium deliver high power density. Other elements like samarium, yttrium, europium, cerium and lanthanum find uses in lasers, LEDs, fuel cells, catalysts and batteries[1].
A concise overview of all seventeen rare earth elements (the fifteen lanthanides plus yttrium and scandium). Each entry summarises industrial applications, geological occurrence and typical yield and price ranges. Yield and price figures are indicative, based on representative deposit grades and recent market data[2].
Uses: Added to aluminium alloys for aerospace and sporting goods to improve strength and reduce weight; essential dopant in solid‑oxide fuel cells and some high‑performance lasers.
Geology: Extremely rare; typically recovered as a by‑product from lateritic nickel‑cobalt deposits and certain phosphate and titanium ores. No dedicated scandium mines exist.
Economics: Yields are tiny (1–5 kg/ha) and production volumes are very low, leading to high prices ($1,500–4,000/kg). Demand is growing for aerospace alloys and fuel cells.
Uses: Key component in red and white phosphors for LEDs and displays, YAG lasers, advanced ceramics and superconductors[1].
Geology: Concentrated in ion‑adsorption clays and in xenotime and peralkaline deposits. Major sources include southern China and India where heavy REEs are mined[2].
Economics: Yields 1,000–2,000 kg/ha; Y oxide prices are modest (around $10/kg). Demand is steady due to lighting and ceramic applications.
Uses: Primary ingredient in NiMH battery electrodes, petroleum refining catalysts and specialty glasses; lanthanum carbonate is used medically to treat phosphate levels.
Geology: Occurs with other light REEs in carbonatites and monazite placers; abundant at Bayan Obo (China), Mountain Pass (USA) and Mount Weld (Australia)[2].
Economics: Yields 2,500–6,000 kg/ha; La oxide is inexpensive ($1–$2/kg) and demand growth is modest as EV batteries shift to lithium‑ion chemistries.
Uses: Widely used in catalytic converters, glass polishing powders, alloys and fuel cell catalysts; also used in self‑cleaning ovens and as an oxidising agent.
Geology: The most abundant REE, occurring in carbonatites and monazite placers around the world; major producers include China and Vietnam.
Economics: Yields 8,000–12,500 kg/ha; Ce oxide price is low (about $5/kg) due to abundant supply and moderate demand.
Uses: Alloyed with Nd in permanent magnets for thermal stability; used in high‑strength alloys for aircraft engines and specialty glasses such as didymium filters[1].
Geology: Occurs together with Nd in carbonatites and placer deposits (Bayan Obo, Mountain Pass, Mount Weld) and is not mined separately[2].
Economics: Yields 300–1,250 kg/ha; Pr prices typically range from $60–$90/kg. Demand tracks Nd as they are co‑produced in magnets and alloy applications[2].
Uses: Cornerstone of NdFeB magnets used in electric vehicles, wind turbines, robotics and numerous electronics[2].
Geology: Light REE enriched in carbonatite and alkaline igneous deposits such as Bayan Obo, Mountain Pass and Mount Weld[2].
Economics: Typical yields of 1,500–4,500 kg/ha; Nd prices average around $56/kg[2]. Demand is growing at ~8–9% annually as EV and wind markets expand[1].
Uses: Extremely rare radioisotope used in portable X‑ray sources, beta‑voltaic nuclear batteries and luminous paint. Not used in mainstream clean‑energy technologies.
Geology: Does not occur in economically significant natural deposits; promethium is created artificially as a by‑product of nuclear reactor operations.
Economics: Yields are negligible and production is measured in grams. Prices are accordingly very high and specialised; Pm is not targeted in REE exploration.
Uses: Critical component of SmCo magnets for high‑temperature motors and generators; also used in nuclear reactor control rods and catalytic processes.
Geology: Found with light REEs in carbonatites and monazite deposits (e.g., Bayan Obo, Mountain Pass) and in smaller amounts in ion‑adsorption clays.
Economics: Yields 50–250 kg/ha; Sm oxide prices are moderate (~$15/kg). Demand grows steadily due to specialised high‑temperature applications.
Uses: Dominant red phosphor in LEDs and displays; used in nuclear reactor control rods and specialised lasers.
Geology: Heavy REE concentrated in ion‑adsorption clays and xenotime; China controls most Eu production with some recovery from phosphorite processing.
Economics: Yields 10–100 kg/ha; Eu oxide prices are relatively high (~$30/kg). Demand is tied to display technology and LEDs.
Uses: Important in MRI contrast agents, magnetocaloric refrigeration materials and neutron shielding in nuclear reactors.
Geology: Occurs with both light and heavy REEs in carbonatites, ion‑adsorption clays and xenotime‑rich pegmatites.
Economics: Yields 20–100 kg/ha; Gd oxide prices typically range from $25–50/kg. Demand is steady for medical imaging and emerging cooling technologies.
Uses: Added to NdFeB magnets for extreme high‑temperature performance; key green phosphor in LEDs and fluorescent lamps and component of magnetostrictive alloys[1].
Geology: Found primarily in ion‑adsorption clays in China and Myanmar[2]; extremely rare in carbonatites.
Economics: Yields 10–50 kg/ha; Tb oxide prices are among the highest (~$810/kg)[2] due to scarcity and strong demand.
Uses: Added to NdFeB magnets to maintain coercivity at high temperatures; also used in nuclear reactor control rods and some laser materials[2].
Geology: Heavy REE concentrated in ion‑adsorption clay deposits in southern China and Myanmar[2]; minor amounts occur in xenotime and monazite placers.
Economics: Yields 50–150 kg/ha; Dy oxide prices averaged $260/kg in 2024[2]. Demand is high but supply constrained.
Uses: Used in medical and dental lasers, microwave equipment, magnetic flux concentrators and nuclear control rods.
Geology: Rare heavy REE present in ion‑adsorption clays, xenotime and monazite; mined as a by‑product of mixed HREE extraction.
Economics: Yields 5–20 kg/ha; Ho oxide prices are in the $25–50/kg range. Demand is modest but growing for niche photonics and magnets.
Uses: Essential dopant in fiber‑optic amplifiers and lasers; used in erbium‑doped fibre amplifiers (EDFAs) for telecoms and in some nuclear technology.
Geology: Found in xenotime‑rich pegmatites and ion‑adsorption clays, often alongside ytterbium and other heavy REEs.
Economics: Yields 5–20 kg/ha; Er oxide prices typically range from $30–60/kg. Demand is steady for telecommunications infrastructure.
Uses: Extremely rare element used in portable X‑ray machines, certain solid‑state lasers and research equipment.
Geology: Occurs in trace amounts in ion‑adsorption clays and xenotime; extraction is challenging and volumes are very small.
Economics: Yields 1–3 kg/ha; Tm oxide prices are very high (around $1,000/kg) due to scarcity and limited demand.
Uses: Used in fibre‑optic communications, atomic clocks and high‑efficiency lasers; also a dopant in some stainless steels.
Geology: Found in xenotime, monazite and ion‑adsorption clays; produced as a by‑product of heavy REE mining.
Economics: Yields 5–10 kg/ha; Yb oxide prices range from $40–60/kg. Demand is growing slowly with emerging quantum and photonics applications.
Uses: Crucial for positron emission tomography (PET) scanners, catalysts in petroleum cracking and certain high‑end lasers.
Geology: The rarest stable lanthanide; extracted from ion‑adsorption clays and xenotime concentrates in very small quantities.
Economics: Yields 1–2 kg/ha; Lu oxide prices can exceed $500/kg. Demand is low but important for medical imaging and specialised catalysts.
Geotechnic Solutions provides early‑stage intelligence and feasibility assessments for rare earth projects. All deliverables are customised and delivered as clear, decision‑ready reports.
Our workflow combines AI and GIS to rapidly screen large areas and deliver high‑quality feasibility outputs while preserving expert judgement. We leverage machine learning for prospectivity mapping and language models for narrative synthesis, then validate and refine results with geoscientists.
Unlike traditional consultancies, we focus on early‑stage feasibility and bring together subsurface expertise, AI and GIS in a compact package. We deliver clear recommendations within weeks, not months, and offer transparent pricing and scope. Our network spans geologists, geophysicists and AI specialists, ensuring that every report balances technology with human insight.
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